A King By Any Other Name…

An -ocracy Glossary

Vocabulary which can help us explain the current moment.

Nations rarely exhibit a single type of governance. Most countries, especially during times of societal and social upheaval, demonstrate qualities of multiple forms of governance. Exploring these terms during a period of change can help us understand what a governing regime is doing. Calling a regime’s actions by their proper names can focus attention on its goals.

The terms often have a strict definition in political science and a looser common use, especially when used pejoratively. Many terms describing forms of government have their origin in ancient Greece; others have more recent coinage.

[Also a fun parlor game: how would you describe the current state of our government?]

(Click on Notes to show or hide further reading.)

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Governance Terms | Anti- and Pro-Democracy Concepts

Governance Terms

Terms describing different types of governance of nations.

anocracy

noun

  • a political system which is neither fully democratic nor fully autocratic, often being vulnerable to political instability.
  • a government that is a hybrid of a democratic and authoritarian state, often as a transitional phase when one of these forms of government takes on characteristics of the other.
  • a state that is not fully democratic but also not fully authoritarian. It describes a “regime” state that has some democratic features (like a parliament) but functions through authoritarian control.

Anocracy usage in political science

In political science, anocracy is the term for a state that is neither fully democratic nor fully autocratic. It is a hybrid regime that mixes democratic features (like elections) with authoritarian ones (like restricted press or lack of executive accountability).

Anocracies are considered an unstable type of government.

The Conflict Risk: Statistics show that anocracies are significantly more likely to experience civil war and political violence than either full democracies (which resolve conflict through voting) or full autocracies (which suppress conflict through force).

The Transition State: Anocracy is often a temporary state. A country is usually either democratizing (on the way up from autocracy) or backsliding (on the way down from democracy). Because these regimes are in flux, they are prone to “adverse regime changes” or coups.

Political scientists distinguish anocracies from autocracies and democracies in their capability to maintain authority, political dynamics, and policy agendas. Anocratic regimes have democratic institutions that allow for nominal amounts of competition. Such regimes are particularly susceptible to outbreaks of political violence, armed conflict and unexpected or adverse changes in leadership.

Not to be confused with: anarchy

anarchy

noun

  • a chaotic and confusing absence of any form of political authority or government.
  • the political theory that a community is best organized by the voluntary cooperation of individuals, rather than by a government, which is regarded as being coercive by nature.

Related term: anarchist (noun) One who promotes chaos and lawlessness.
See also: types of bad governance > ochlocracy (mob rule)

authoritarian

adjective

  • of, relating to, favoring or forcing a concentration of power in a leader or an elite not constitutionally responsible to the people.
  • favouring, denoting, or relating to government by a small elite with wide powers.
  • a government in which individual freedom is subordinate to the power or authority of a state that is not constitutionally accountable to the people.

noun

  • a person who favors or acts according to authoritarian principles.

Similar to: autocratic, despotic, totalitarian, tyrannical

See also: anocracy
For a comparison of Authoritarian, Totalitarian, Fascist, and Despotic, see “System of Government”.

Traits of authoritarian governance

To distinguish an authoritarian form of government, political science defines authoritarian regimes by four traits:

  1. Limited Pluralism: Some social and economic institutions (like the church or business) may remain independent as long as they don’t challenge the state.
  2. Lacking a Guiding Ideology: Unlike fascism or communism, it often lacks a “total” world-view, relying instead on “mentalities” like order or nationalism.
  3. No Extensive Mobilization: The regime prefers a passive, “depoliticized” public rather than one actively marching in the streets.
  4. Formally Ill-defined Executive Power: Power is held by a leader or small elite with shifting, often vague limits.

autocracy

noun

  • a form of government in which unlimited power is held by a single individual.
  • government by an individual with unrestricted authority.
  • a country ruled by an autocrat

Similar to: tyranny, monarchy

corporatocracy

noun

  • rule by corporations; an economic, political and judicial system controlled or influenced by business corporations or corporate interests.
  • a society or government that is governed, controlled or dominated by corporations.
    e.g., “Google, Apple, Meta and Microsoft now constitute a technologic corporatocracy.”

Notes on corporatocracy

Corporatocracy is a relatively new neologism, variously used to describe:

  • a state in which corporations wield outsize influence over the government;
  • a state that is controlled by corporations in willing or uneasy cooperation with its rulers;
  • a state in which corporations control the government as puppeteers over a figurehead ruler;
  • (rare) a state openly governed by corporations.

democracy

noun

  • rule by the people, especially as a form of government; either directly or through elected representatives.
  • government by the people; a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
  • a state with a democratic system of government.
  • a system of running government, organizations, and groups in which each member is entitled to vote and take part in decisions.
  • a state of society characterized by formal equality of rights and privileges; political or social equality.

fascism

noun

  • Any right-wing, authoritarian, nationalist ideology characterized by centralized, totalitarian governance, strong regimentation of the economy and society, and repression of criticism or opposition.
  • More loosely, commonly used to criticize a system of strong autocracy or oligarchy accused of bending and breaking the law, race-baiting, and/or violence against largely unarmed populations.

See: system of government > Comparison of various forms of government (below)

kleptocracy

noun

  • government by those who chiefly seek status and personal gain at the expense of the governed.
  • a corrupt and dishonest government or society characterised by theft and greed.
  • a government or state in which those in power exploit national resources and steal; rule by a thief or thieves.
  • a corrupt political regime characterized by widespread theft of its nation’s wealth and resources.
  • a particular government of this kind.

Related to: oligarchy, plutocracy
See also: comparison of types of bad governance

oligarchy

noun

  • a government run by and for only a few, often the aristocracy, the wealthy, or their friends and associates.
  • a form of government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class or clique; government by the few.
  • a small clique of private citizens, government officials or military officers who exert a strong influence on the government.
  • the small body of individuals ruling such a state.
  • a country run as an oligarchy.

Oligarchy is variously used to describe:

  • a state in which oligarchs wield outsize influence over the government;
  • a state that is controlled by oligarchs in willing or uneasy cooperation with its rulers;
  • a state in which oligarchs control the government as puppeteers over a figurehead ruler;
  • a state openly governed by oligarchs.

Similar to: plutocracy
Related to: kleptocracy

Compare oligarchy and plutocracy

Oligarchy / Plutocracy:

Feature Oligarchy Plutocracy
Relationshipp The “Parent” category. A “Sub-type” of oligarchy.
Primary Meaning Rule by a small group. Rule by the wealthy.
Source of Power Diverse (Lineage, Military, Party). Financial (Assets, Money, Capital).
Typical Trait Exclusivity: Power is not shared with the masses. Incentive: Policy tends to favor the wealthy.
Examples A Military Junta (rule by generals). A Corporate State or “corporatocracy”
(rule by corporations).

Because wealth is one of the most effective ways to gain and hold power, many oligarchies are also plutocracies.

plutocracy

noun

  • the rule or control of society by the wealthy.
  • a state or government characterized by the rule of the wealthy.
  • a class that exercises power by virtue of its wealth.

A plutocracy is a type of oligarchy (a sub-set).

Usage: This can mean that wealthy people are the actual leaders, or that they influence or control the decisions that the leaders make. Plutocracy is never used as an official term for a form of government — it’s almost always applied as a criticism of such situations. It is frequently used as a way of pointing out inequality and the powerful influence of the wealthy in politics and government.

See: Compare oligarchy and plutocracy (above)

technocracy

noun

  • a system of governance where people who are skilled or proficient govern in their respective areas of expertise.
  • a theory or movement advocating control of industrial resources, reform of financial institutions, and reorganization of the social system, based on the findings of technologists and engineers.
  • a system of government in which this theory is applied.
  • a state considered to be governed or organized according to these principles.

The degree to which technocrats should guide or set goverment policies has become a central issue of debate in the U.S., with “MAGA” Republicans arguing that a “deep state” of technocrats has wrested control from the administration, while the pro-democracy movement argues that experts are being sidelined to allow government policies to be set by the ruling political class. Demonization of experts is a common tactic of rising authoritarians.

Not to be confused with:
technologic corporatocracy (term) government run or influenced by technology corporations or their executives and major stockholders.

totalitarianism

noun

  • a system of government in which the people have virtually no authority and the state wields absolute control, for example, a dictatorship.
  • domination by a government of all political, social, and economic activities in a nation.

Contentious usage: precise definition, application to specific cases, and distinction from similar terms varies by author. Narrowly, a government in which everything is political and controlled by the state, coined to describe fascism, in contrast to the older terms and concepts of autocracy, dictatorship, and tyranny, which focus more on centralization of power, not its pervasiveness.

See: system of government > Comparison of various forms of government (below)

system of government

(“Forms of Government” • “Polity” • “Regime” • “Governance”)

  • Regime: In political science, a regime refers to the set of rules, cultural or social norms, and institutions that determine how a government is structured and how it interacts with society; a neutral term for any form of government.
    In common use, regime often refers to an oppressive or overly controlling government.
  • Polity: Any organized political entity or a specific form of civil government. Often used when discussing the legal or constitutional structure of a society. The organizational structure and governance of a state, or the state ruled thereby.
  • Governance: The manner or system in which a state is governed, frequently used when discussing how effectively a government functions.

Comparison of various forms of governance

Authoritarian vs. Totalitarian
It is common to confuse these two, but scholars distinguish them by the depth of control:

Feature Authoritarian Totalitarian
Control Seeks political control. Seeks control over everything (thoughts, family, religion).
Ideology Usually lacks a complex, “sacred” ideology. Driven by a mandatory, all-encompassing ideology.
Source of Power Diverse (Lineage, Military, Party). Financial (Assets, Money, Capital).
Public Role Wants the public to be quiet and stay out of politics. Requires the public to be active, loud, and demonstrative in support.
Pluralism Permits some independent groups
(e.g., private business).		 Permits no independent groups; the state is the only entity.

Authoritarian vs. Fascist
Authoritarian is a broad category of government, while fascist is a specific, extreme sub-type of that category.

Feature Authoritarian (General) Fascist (Specific)
Controlp Limited Pluralism: May allow the Church or businesses to exist if they don’t interfere. Totalitarian: Seeks to absorb everything (youth groups, leisure, labor) into the State.
Ideology Pragmatic: Often lacks a deep ideology; focused on “order,” “stability,” or “tradition.” Revolutionary: Driven by a specific “national rebirth” (Palingenesis) and ultranationalism.
Legitimacy Relies on existing institutions (military, religion, monarchy). Relies on a Cult of Personality and the “Will of the People.”
Goal To keep power and maintain the status quo. To transform society and create a “New Man.”

Additional related terms

Term Core Definition Characteristics
Authoritarian Concentrated power; no competition. Analytical/Systemic.
Fascist Nationalist; mass-mobilized; revolutionary. Ideological/Active.
Despotic Personal rule; ruler owns the state. Ancient/Arbitrary.
Tyrannical Cruel; unjust; rules for self-interest. Moral/Abusive.

types of bad governance

(ineptocracy, kakistocracy, kleptocracy, ochlocracy, pathocracy)

ineptocracy (noun)
  • a relatively new neologism that has gained popularity on social media and as a political buzzword. It is defined as a system of government where the least capable to lead are elected by the least capable of producing. It is frequently used in modern discourse to describe a perceived cycle of administrative failure and economic mismanagement.
kakistocracy (noun)
  • a system of government which is run by the worst, least qualified, or most unscrupulous citizens. It is often used today by political critics to describe a government that seems to lack basic administrative competence.
maladministration (noun)
  • the standard term that describes the action of an incompetent government rather than the name of the system itself. It refers to inefficient or dishonest management or administration.
ochlocracy (noun)
  • mob rule; government by the masses; mobocracy; rule by the rabble.
  • an oppressive majoritarian form of government controlled by the common people through the intimidation of authorities. Ochlocracy is distinguished from democracy or similarly legitimate and representative governments by the absence or impairment of a procedurally civil process reflective of the entire polity.
pathocracy (noun)
  • government by people with personality disorders; rule by the psychopathic.
  • a form of government in which individuals with psychological disorders consolidate and abuse power in a way that produces a contagion of lunacy.

Aspects of various forms of bad governance

Term Root Meaning The Specific “Flaw”
Ineptocracy Rule by the inept. Inability to manage or produce results.
Kakistocracy Rule by the worst. General incompetence and lack of ethics.
Kleptocracy Rule by thieves. Focus on corruption and personal enrichment.
Ochlocracy Rule by a mob. Focus on strength and terror.
Pathocracy Rule by the psychopathic. A system where individuals with personality disorders reach power.

Concepts

Terms describing aspects of anti- and pro-democracy issues.

3.5% Rule

The 3.5% rule is a concept in political science that states that when 3.5% of the population of a country protest nonviolently against an authoritarian government, that government is likely to fall from power.

Political scientists Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan found that nearly every movement (in the Nonviolent and Violent Campaigns and Outcomes dataset) with active participation from at least 3.5% of the population succeeded in toppling the regime.

3.5% Rule – further reading

In 2025, the 3.5% rule became prominent in protests against Donald Trump. Members of the 50501 movement, one of the organizers of the Hands Off protests of April 5, 2025, issued a statement that said: “We are committed to building our peaceful People’s Movement and achieving 3.5% participation. History shows that when just 3.5% of the population engages in sustained peaceful resistance, transformative change is inevitable.”

A crowdsourcing effort by data journalists that tallied attendance at the June 2025 No Kings protests estimated total attendance in the range of 4–6 million people, or roughly 1.2–1.8% of the US population. The October 2025 No Kings protests drew approximately 7 million participants, or approximately 2% of the US population.

More recently, Chenoweth has noted that the complexity and specifics of the current situation and the size of the U.S. population means that her original research may not apply as specifically to the U.S. today, and that 3.5% should not be considered a magic number. She notes, however, that the base principles of sustained mass peaceful protest, coupled with other resistance methods such as economic boycotts and other elements of the anit-authoritarian playbook, should still be the focus of those trying to topple the current regime.

authoritarian playbook

term

  • a document which attempts to explain the methods used by authoritarian regimes.
  • also used to describe a regime’s own operational guide, such as The Heritage Foundations’s “Project 2025”.
    (see: The ACLU’s Project 2025, Explained )

Considered by many in the pro-democracy movement to be essential reading for an understanding of the methodology of modern authoritarian regimes, the organization Protect Democracy published “The Authoritarian Playbook” in order to highlight and explain the threats to democracy occurring in the present moment. A summary plus a link to the full document can be found here.

Understanding the methods used by authoritarian regimes to seize and hold power, and recognizing those methods as they occur during a time of democratic backsliding, is considered essential to devising methods for combatting them.

Playbook – key points

“Slicing away at democracy a sliver at a time, modern authoritarians still cement themselves in power, but they do so incrementally and gradually. Sometimes their actions are deliberate and calculated, but sometimes they are opportunistic, myopic, or even bumbling. There is no longer a singular bright line that countries cross between democracy and authoritarianism. But the outcome is still the same.”

“The Authoritarian Playbook” catalogs the seven basic tactics that are almost always present in examples of democratic backsliding around the world:

  • Politicizing independent institutions
  • Spreading disinformation
  • Aggrandizing executive power and undermining checks & balances
  • Quashing dissent
  • Marginalizing/demonizing vulnerable communities
  • Corrupting elections
  • Stoking violence

An authoritarian regime relies on the support of many different sectors of society and tries to co-opt and control them. Chipping away at the support of those sectors is a basic strategy for toppling that regime.

Pillars of support of an authoritarian regime

Playbook – further reading

The Authoritarian Playbook for 2025
How an authoritarian president will dismantle our democracy and what we can do to protect it.

What We Can Do to Safeguard U.S. Democracy
Strategies to protect our democracy.

How You Can Protect Democracy
29 concrete actions you can take right now to protect democracy.

Indivisible: A Practical Guide To Democracy On The Brink
Strategies, Tactics, & Tips For How Everyday Americans Can Fight Back Together Wherever We Live.
(Audio guide on YouTube: Indivisible: A Practical Guide to Democracy on the Brink [Audio Guide])

Trump’s Authoritarian Playbook: The Warning Signs of Tyranny
How the President is Using Immigration Enforcement to Dismantle Our Democracy.

economic inequality

Economic inequality is an umbrella term for several concepts:

  • income inequality: how the total sum of money paid to people is distributed among them.
  • pay inequality: payment from employment only.
  • wealth inequality: how the total sum of wealth owned by people is distributed among the owners.

Income Inequality
Income is not just the money received through pay, but all the money received from employment (wages, salaries, bonuses etc.), investments, such as interest on savings accounts and dividends from shares of stock, savings, state benefits, pensions (state, personal, company) and rent.
Income inequality is the extent to which income is unevenly distributed among a population.

Pay Inequality (a.k.a Wage Inequality)
A person’s pay is different than their income. Pay refers to payment from employment only. This can be on an hourly, monthly or annual basis, is typically paid weekly or monthly and may also include bonuses.
Pay inequality describes the difference between people’s pay. This may be within one company (e.g. the pay difference between the CEO and line workers) or across all pay received in a country or society.

Wealth Inequality
Wealth refers to the total amount of assets of an individual or household. This may include financial assets, such as bonds and stocks, property and private pension rights.
Wealth inequality refers to the unequal distribution of assets in a group of people.

Forms of governance which tend to increase economic inequality include plutocracy, corporatocracy, free market capitalism, and kleptocracy. Social policy regarding race and gender discrimination are among the causes of systemic economic inequality.

Currently in the U.S., Democratic Socialists have helped to focus attention on economic inequality.

Other aspects of economic inequality and further reading

In the United States, economic inequality has been widening at a steep pace in recent decades and especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, and is currently at levels not seen since the “gilded age” and, by many measures, has reached unprecedented levels.

Discussions about and research into economic inequality often include topics such as racial economic inequality, gender economic inequality, global economic inequality, systemic- and persistent-inequality, and much else.

For further reading see: Institute for Policy Studies (inequality.org) | Equality Trust (U.K.)

propaganda

noun

  • ideas, facts, or allegations spread deliberately to further one’s cause or to damage an opposing cause.
  • information, ideas, or rumors deliberately spread to help or harm a person, group, movement, institution, nation, etc.
  • information — often misinformation, disinformation or lies — spread and continually repeated with the intent of giving it credence.
  • such communication specifically when it is biased, misleading, or provoking mainly emotional responses.
    (now often used disparagingly to connote deception or distortion)

Calling lies and disinformation what they are — propaganda — is an important way of fighting it.

Notes on propaganda usage in the 21st century

Prior to the 21st century, the spreading of propaganda was primarily a top-down process, with a governing regime or opposition creating and disseminating the information.

The digital age has given rise to new ways of disseminating propaganda. In computational propaganda, for example, bots and algorithms are used to manipulate public opinion, e.g., by creating fake or biased news (now aided by AI) to spread it on social media or using chatbots to mimic real people in discussions in social networks.

Rather than a top-down spread, mis- and dis-information is now often created for and spread on social media by partisans, and then picked up, amplified and repeated by the governing regime.

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